Table 8.1.
Input agreements

The date command displays the date and time.

If you run the who command and press the key , then the screen will look like this:

$ who

dko30024		Oct18 8:30
dko30001		Oct18 8:34
dko30020		Oct18 8:32
		Oct18 8:00

This means that you have successfully completed your work with the system and it is ready to register a new user.

If you logged in from a remote terminal, the connection will be disconnected, which will be notified to you, for example, by the telnet application.

Note. Before you disconnect the terminal, be sure to shut down the system.

UNIX is a multitasking, multi-user system. One powerful server can serve the requests of a large number of users. The system can perform a variety of functions: work as a computing server serving hundreds of users, as a database server, as a network server or network router.

In general, the UNIX operating system can be represented as a two-tier model. In the center is the system core (kernel). The kernel directly interacts with the computer hardware, isolating application programs from the features of its architecture. The kernel includes programs that implement a set of services provided to application programs. Kernel services include I/O operations, process creation and management, process synchronization, etc. The next level of the model is system services that provide the user interface of the UNIX OS. The scheme of interaction with the kernel of both applications and system tasks is the same.

The UNIX operating system interacts with the computer's hardware and software resources to perform the following functions:

• equipment management;

  resource management;

  user interface support;

  performing information input and output;

  system monitoring;

  providing remote access to a computer network.

A UNIX system contains three main components: the command system, the shell, and the kernel.

The UNIX operating system contains several hundred commands that perform tasks of organizing and processing data and managing the user's environment. The commands themselves are small programs that perform specific functions, usually requiring minimal input, and are executed relatively quickly.

Shells are commonly referred to as interactive programs that provide a user interface to the operating system kernel. The shell becomes the user's active process from the time he logs on to the system until he logs off. These programs are command interpreters (sometimes called command processors).

The system kernel is the core of the operating system, which provides basic functions: creating and managing processes, allocating memory, and providing access to files and peripheral devices.

The kernel consists of three main subsystems:

• process and memory management subsystem;

  file subsystem;

  input/output subsystem.

To establish contact with a UNIX system, you need to have:

• terminal;

  a login name that identifies you as an authorized user;

  a password that verifies your identity;

  instructions for dialogue and access to the UNIX system if your terminal is not directly connected to the computer.

Transcript

1 Introduction The course “UNIX OS Fundamentals” is intended for students initial courses faculties interested in training software developers of one level or another. A mandatory preliminary course for the UNIX OS is an introductory course in programming in the C language, as a basic course, as well as a course in the basics of computer architecture. The course structure offers 13 lectures and associated labs to help you understand general principles functioning of a UNIX operating system. The lecture material is presented in abstract form, which leaves a greater degree of freedom for the depth of presentation of topics in the lecture material. In addition, the duration of some lectures can vary from 2 to 6 hours if necessary. Laboratory classes do not require the use of a specialized laboratory or a specific UNIX/Linux clone and can be performed on students’ personal computers using any available UNIX, Solaris, Linux, FreeBSD, Mac OS X, etc. software, provided that the appropriate packages are installed from the repositories for developers. In practice, usually, remote access to a Linux server via the SSH protocol was used to Windows workers stations and PuTTY 1 as an SSH client. Note, finally, that all tasks are performed in the shell (bash) command interpreter and the various existing X Window (X11) interfaces (CDE, GNOME, KDE, Xfwm, Xfce or wmii, etc.) are not discussed here, which allows you to use minimum configurations kernel and concentrate on learning the OS kernel from the very beginning of the course. Why, after all, is Linux chosen to represent the basics of operating systems, and not, for example, Microsoft Windows? There are several reasons: open source Linux, the UNIX ideology embedded in it, the main OS ideas implemented in UNIX/Linux are also used in Microsoft Windows: multitasking, hierarchical file system, multi-user system, virtual memory, built-in network stack, multithreading, and, most importantly, the Linux kernel is increasingly being chosen for building computer systems at various levels from distributed and cloud servers in a corporate system to mobile ones and embedded in control chips of systems. 1 Vlasov S.V Faculty of Computer Science VSU, Voronezh 1

2 Lecture 1. Basic concepts. An operating system is a software product designed to manage computer resources: hardware, data, programs and processes. A mandatory component of the OS is the kernel; all other components are applications added to the OS if necessary. For example, when they say: “ Linux versions..." they mean the kernel, but by GNU/Linux they mean a clone with a specific kernel and a set of applications (Debian, Red Hat, Susse, etc.) The OS kernel is a mandatory component of the OS that provides data structures and programs and processes, as well as hardware-dependent code necessary to manage computer resources. There are different principles for constructing a kernel: a monolithic kernel (Linux) or a microkernel (eg Minix). The kernel can be customized by adding or removing some components (modules, drivers). File specific sequence byte. In UNIX, almost everything is represented as a file. In this case, only 7 types of files are distinguished (the corresponding symbol is indicated in parentheses: in the output of the ls -l command) regular files (-) special files: directory, (d) symbolic link, (l) named pipe, (p) character device, ( c) block device, (b) UNIX socket. (s) Recognizing and processing the internal structure of a file is the responsibility of the application for which the file was intended or created. A hierarchical file system is an abstraction for representing the ordering of files as a tree of directories. The root of the tree is a directory named "/", which is called the root file system (not to be confused with /root). The peculiarity of the Linux hierarchical file system is that it is virtual, in the sense that any node in a single hierarchy can be associated with its own file system of a certain type (ext2fs, ext3fs, riserfs, vfat, etc.), located on a separate device, partition, or directly in memory. Directory in the hierarchy used in each this moment by default is called the current working directory. You can use absolute file names starting from the root /, or relative names from the current working directory (the "." - dot character) when the parent directory is indicated by ".." characters (two dots horizontally without spaces). A program is a file containing executable instructions. A file containing the printed text of a program in a programming language is called a program source module. The source code, written in a script language (shell, perl, python, ruby, etc.) is executed directly by the language interpreter. Sources in other languages ​​(C, Fortran, etc.) must be compiled to convert the source text into an executable program module containing processor instructions in binary format (evolving from a.out and COFF to ELF). A process is a program at runtime. Processes are also organized into a hierarchy with parent-child relationships. All processes in UNIX have a unique integer identifier (PID). The root process of the hierarchy is process number 1, this is the init process, spawned when the operating system kernel boots and spawns other descendant processes. When the OS is running, any process except init can be stopped. There is also a hidden process 0 - swap, which is responsible for paging virtual memory. Logon process is the parent process for all processes generated by the user Vlasov S.V Faculty of Computer Science VSU, Voronezh 2

3 systems running in multi-user mode. The task of this process is to check the security attributes (login name and password) of the user and start the process that provides the interface for interaction between the OS and the user, usually a shell command language interpreter. A shell interpreter is a program that is part of a specific OS to ensure user interaction with the OS. UNIX/Linux systems use various interpreters: bash, csh, tcsh, ksh, zsh and many others. Bash is usually the default interpreter on GNU/Linux systems. The interpreter provides a command line for launching standard commands and user programs. Vlasov S.V Faculty of Computer Science VSU, Voronezh 3

4 Practical examples. Login via SSH client (PuTTY) In MS Windows, select Start->Run and enter: X:/Putty/Putty.exe In the Putty Configuration window that opens, enter in the Host Name (or IP address) field: www2 Clicking on Open will lead to connection to the www2 server and a logon window appears in which, when you first try to connect to a Linux server, a PuTTY Security Alert message appears about the absence of a new RSA key in the registry cache; agree to include the key in the cache for a trusted connection with the server now and in the future. Click Yes. An invitation will appear in the DOS window Vlasov S.V FCS VSU, Voronezh 4

5 Logon as: name password: where you enter your login name (instead of name) and password. Be careful when entering your password, since the keys you press are not displayed in any way when entering, not even asterisks. If everything is done correctly, then you will see the command line prompt of the shell 2 interpreter in the same window: ~$ _ Now you can interact with the Linux OS through the command line interface. 3 In what follows, we will only use the $ symbol to indicate the command line, although you may have it preceded by the path to the current working directory. Where are we? (home directory) When registering in the system, each user is assigned a secure home directory for storing personal files. When you log in, the Logon process automatically mounts your home directory as the current working directory. The three following commands should show the same result, the full path to your home directory. $ pwd $ echo ~ $ echo $HOME What do we have? (automatically generated files) The contents of the current working directory can be displayed with the command: $ ls When logging in for the first time, this list is usually empty. 4 However, when a user registers, some hidden service files are created in his home directory, which can be modified by the user himself to configure the required environment. The -a switch of the ls command allows you to see everything in the list of contents of the current directory hidden files, named with the prefix "." (dot) $ ls -a By the way, this list also includes the anonymous names of the current directory "." and the parent directory "..". By giving your own file a name prefixed with "." (dot) you make it hidden. What system is used? Operations and system configuration options depend on the OS version you are using. To get information about this, use the command $ uname -a Brief information about the parameters and keys of the command can be obtained using the help key, for example, 2 If you have problems connecting to the server or entering your name and password, you have only one option, contact the server system administrator . 3 The $ symbol before the cursor is a command line sign and is the default for a normal user in the bash command interpreter. (The # symbol is used for the root superuser) 4 You may have a public_html directory that can be used to exchange files between Linux and MS Windows systems thanks to the corresponding service. Vlasov S.V Faculty of Computer Science VSU, Voronezh 5

6 $ uname --help Detailed description UNIX commands and functions can be obtained from documentation called man pages (“manual pages” - system manual): $ man pwd $ man ls $ man echo $ man uname Manual pages are presented in a special format nroff /troff/groff and are formatted when output the appropriate utility depending on the type of output device. To finish viewing the manual pages, press the Q key $ man man Manual files are usually stored in packaged form (suffix.gz or .bz2) and are organized into sections: 1. General commands 2. System calls 3. C library functions 4. Special files 5. File formats and conversion 6. Games and screensavers 7. Additional 8. Commands and daemons for system administration The section number is used when referring to the command or function being used, for example, printf/3 and is indicated by the first parameter of the command $ man 1 printf $ man 3 printf The directory in which the command's manual page is located can be determined using the -w $ man -w command Hierarchical File System The ls command can be used to list the contents of any directory in the file system hierarchy (regardless of the physical device and type of file system on the partition or in memory). For example, the root file system is displayed with the command $ ls / However, in order to display the structure of the entire tree, a fair amount of ingenuity is required, for example, $ ls -R grep ":$" sed -e "s/:$//" -e "s/[^-][^\/]*\//--/g" -e "s/^/ /" -e "s/-/ /" where the filter is used regular expressions grep, the sed stream editor, and unnamed pipes, denoted by the symbol (pipe). In your home directory, you can create a new (empty) directory node in the hierarchy, for example, lab1 Vlasov S.V Faculty of Computer Science VSU, Voronezh 6

7 $ mkdir lab1 Any node in the hierarchy can be selected as the current one $ cd lab1 $ pwd To return to your home directory (defined by the HOME environment variable), use the cd command without parameters $ cd $ pwd You can delete an empty directory with the rmdir command, for example, $ rmdir lab1 If the directory is not empty, then the last command (if lab1 contains some files) will display the messages rmdir: lab1: Directory not empty and the deletion will not be performed. In the current directory you can create, for example, a text (regular) file. To do this, you can use the redirected output of the command echo $ echo "echo Print directory tree " > tree A tree file is created, the contents of which can be output with the command $ cat tree or in page formatted form $ pr tree You can even add a new line to the end of the existing file, for example, $ echo using grep and sed >> tree $ cat tree You can use a line text editor ed a standard editor designed for editing text from a typewriter-type console. $ ed tree a ls -R grep ":$" sed -e "s/:$//" -e "s/[^-][^\/]*\//--/g" -e "s /^/ /" -e "s/-/ /". wq $ cat tree In fact, we have created a file with commands here, which can be executed as a new command if you declare it “executable”: $ chmod +x tree $./tree Vlasov S.V Faculty of Computer Science VSU, Voronezh 7

8 Note that an attempt to execute a file without specifying the current directory, i.e. just tree rather than ./tree as shown above will not result in the file being found in the current directory. This is because for security reasons the anonymous current directory is not included in the variable environment PATH, used to find a program to run by name. $ echo $PATH Full list The user can get environment variables and their values ​​with the command: $ env To create text files you can also use the cat command to redirect the output to a file $ cat > file text Ctrl-D Here, pressing Ctrl-D sends the end of file (EOF) character END OF TRANSMISSION to the input stream. You can also append text to the end of the file $ cat >> file appended text Ctrl-D To create large text files, for example with C sources, use powerful on-screen text editors such as vi/vim, nano or emacs. Deleting a file is done with the command $ rm file. Among other things, the -r or -R switch allows you to recursively delete a subtree of directories. To safely delete files, it is recommended to use the -i switch, which generates a request to confirm the deletion. Moving and renaming a file is carried out with the command Date and time $ mv old new The current system time and date can be determined with the command $ date To change the time and/or date, use a parameter in the MMDDhhmmYY format. For example, for a job on January 24 8:36 PM 2011, you would enter $ date. Note also that the time command found on UNIX systems shows the time used by the following process (real time, user-mode execution time, and kernel-mode time) , not the current system time. Try Vlasov S.V FCS VSU, Voronezh 8

9 $ time date you should get something like the following output real user sys 0m0.040s 0m0.000s 0m0.040s Who else is on the system? UNIX OS is a multi-user system that allows you to simultaneously execute a logon process and allow several users to work in the system independently of each other. To determine who is currently logged in, use the $who command, which displays the user's login name, terminal, and the time the logon process was initiated. In a multi-user system, the same user can use several different terminals at the same time (for example, several parallel SSH sessions). To determine who is using the current terminal, you can use the command $ whoami Registered users So, to use the system you need to be a registered user. Registration is carried out by the system administrator with superuser rights, which has a standard name in UNIX/Linux systems - root. 5 Typically, all registration records about users are stored in a single file /etc/passwd, which is readable by everyone $ cat /etc/passwd In earlier versions of the system, the encrypted password (hash) of the user was also stored in the same file (the second field after the user name , separated by a colon). But in the latest systems It is customary to store password hashes in another file /etc/shadow, which is not readable by anyone other than root. The password field in the /etc/passwd file stores only a hidden link to the entry in /etc/shadow, so only the “*” character is displayed. To change the current password on UNIX systems, use the command $ passwd Changing password for name. (current) UNIX password: current user password new UNIX zfyytsshchkv: new password retype new UNIX password: new password (again exactly the same as in the previous line) passwd: password updated successfully If there is an error, or too simple password messages appear, for example, or passwd: Authentication token manipulation error BAD PASSWORD: it is too simple simplistic/systematic 5 Typically, the root name is not used to log in; instead, the administrator creates a normal login for himself, but uses the su command to perform operations , requiring superuser privileges. In Linux systems, a popular group of privileged users is sudoers, who receive the right to perform operations with root rights via the sudo command Vlasov S.V FCS VSU, Voronezh 9

10 In this case, you must enter a different password. Note that the passwd process runs in special superuser mode and ignores the SIGINT signal sent by pressing keys Ctrl-C, and thus cannot be interrupted. A simple way of communication Users simultaneously working in the system can send short messages to each other using the command $ write name The user with the specified name/terminal will immediately receive a notification Message from your_name on tty0 at 10:30.. and if you continue to type on your terminal (here on tty0), the message will immediately appear line by line on the terminal of the user with the name specified in the command. To end the message you must enter Ctrl-D. However, if your opponent does not want to receive any messages, then he uses the $ mesg n command to disable the ability to send/receive write messages. To enable this feature, the user must run the command $ mesg y If you need to send a message to all users on the system at once (who have messages enabled), you can use the command $ wall message up to 20 lines Ctrl-D Log off the session $ logout You can also use Ctrl-D or $ exit The logout command may not terminate the session, but will display one of two messages or There are stopped jobs not login shell: use "exit" The first message is a warning that your session has been started and paused (by the SIGSTOP signal or Ctrl- Z) tasks. You have the opportunity to continue executing jobs (with the jobs and fg commands) until they complete normally. However, if you do not do this, suspended jobs will be terminated (with a SIGTERM signal) when the logout or Ctrl-D command is executed again. The second message means that you have spawned child processes from the shell launched by the logon process that are executing the current shell session that is not associated with the logon process. Vlasov S.V Faculty of Computer Science VSU, Voronezh 10

11 You must execute the exit or Ctrl-D command in the current shell to return to the shell process spawned by logon. Conclusions The OS is a complex software system consisting of subsystems for managing various resources. The purpose of the course is to study the main features of the functioning of the UNIX/Linux OS kernel subsystems through the system call interface. Vlasov S.V Faculty of Computer Science VSU, Voronezh 11

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Linux is a version of the Unix operating system for computing platforms based on Intel processors;
HP-UX - Hewlett-Packard version; is constantly evolving and is compatible with IE-64, which is a new standard for 64-bit architecture;
SGI Irix is ​​a Silicon Graphics PC operating system based on System V Release 3.2 with BSD elements. On this version of Unix, the Industrial Light & Magic studio created the films “Terminator 2” and “Jurassic Park”.
SCO Unix is ​​a version of Santa Cruz Operation for the Intel platform, independent of hardware manufacturers;
IBM AIX - implemented based on System V Release 2 with some BSD extensions;
DEC Unix is ​​an operating system with support for clusters; designed to work together with Windows NT;
NeXTStep-4.3 BSD - OS based on the Mach kernel, used in NeXT computers; belongs Apple Computer and serves as the operating system for Macintosh computers;
Sun Solaris is an operating system for SPARC stations based on System V Release 4 with numerous additions.

The Unix operating system appeared during the development of minicomputers. In 1969, the research firm Bell Labs began developing a compact operating system for Digital Equipment Corporation's 18-bit DEC PDP-7 minicomputer. The system was originally written in assembly language and the birth date of Unix is ​​considered to be January 1, 1970. In 1973, it was rewritten in the C language, which was developed at Bell Labs. At the same time, the official presentation of the operating system took place. Its authors, Bell Labs employees Ken Thompson and Dennis M. Ritchie, called their brainchild a “universal time-sharing OS.”

Unix was based on a hierarchical file system. Each process was considered as a sequential execution of program code within an autonomous address space, and work with devices was treated as work with files. The first version implemented the key concept of a process, later system calls (fork, wait, exec, exit) appeared. In 1972, pipelining was introduced through the introduction of pipes.

By the end of the 1970s, Unix had become a popular operating system, helped by preferential distribution conditions in the university environment. Unix was ported to many hardware platforms, and its variants began to appear. Over time, Unix has become the standard not only for professional workstations, but also for large corporate systems. The reliability and flexibility of UNIX settings has made it popular, especially among system administrators. She played an active role in spreading global networks, and, above all, the Internet.

Thanks to the source disclosure policy, numerous free dialects of Unix running on Intel platform x86 (Linux, FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD). Full control over texts made it possible to create systems with special performance and security requirements. Unix also assimilated elements of other operating systems, resulting in the development of POSIX and X/Open programming interfaces.

There are two independently developed branches of UNIX - System V and Berkeley, on the basis of which the dialects of Unix and Unix-like systems. BSD 1.0, which became the basis for non-commercial UNIX dialects, was released in 1977 at the University of California, Berkeley, based on the UNIX V6 source code. In 1982-1983, the first commercial dialects of Unix, System III and System V, were released by Unix System Laboratories (USL). The System V version of Unix formed the basis for most subsequent commercial variants. In 1993, AT&T sold the rights to Unix along with the USL laboratory to Novell, which developed a UNKWare dialect based on System V, owned by the Santa Cruz Operation under the name SCO UNIXWare. Trademark Unix is ​​owned by the X/Open Company.

Unix gained popularity due to its ability to work on different hardware platforms - portability, or mobility. The mobility problem in UNIX was solved by unifying the operating system architecture and using a single language environment. The C language developed at Bell Labs became the link between the hardware platform and the operating environment.

Many portability problems in Unix were solved by providing a single software and user interface. Two organizations are tackling the problem of reconciling multiple Unix dialects: the IEEE Portable Applications Standards Committee (PASC) and the X/Open Company (The Open Group). These organizations are developing standards that make it possible to integrate heterogeneous operating systems, including those not related to Unix (IEEE PASC - POSIX 1003, X/Open - Common API). Thus, POSIX-compatible systems are Open-VMS, Windows NT, OS/2.

The portability of Unix, as a system oriented to a wide range of hardware platforms, is based on a modular structure with a central kernel. Initially, the UNIX kernel contained a set of tools responsible for process dispatch, memory allocation, working with the file system, support for external device drivers, networking and security tools.

Subsequently, by separating from the traditional core, minimally required set means, a microkernel was formed. The most famous implementations of Unix microkernels are Amoeba, Chorus (Sun Microsystems), QNX (QNX Software Systems). The Chorus microkernel occupies 60 KB, QNX - 8 KB. Based on QNX, a 30 KB POSIX-compliant Neutrino microkernel was developed. At Carnegie Mellon University in 1985, the Mach microkernel was developed, used in NeXT OS (NeXT), MachTen (Mac), OS/2, AIX (for IBM RS/6000), OSF/1, Digital UNIX (for Alpha), Windows NT, BeOS.

In Russia, the Unix operating system is used as network technology and operating environment for different computer platforms. The infrastructure of the Russian Internet was formed on the basis of Unix. Since the early 1980s, domestic work on the Unix operating system was carried out at the Institute of Atomic Energy named after. I. V. Kurchatov (KIAE) and the Institute of Applied Cybernetics of the Ministry of Automotive Industry. The result of the unification of these teams was the birth of the DEMOS operating system (Dialogue Unified Mobile Operating System), which, in addition to domestic analogues of the PDP-11 (SM-4, SM-1420), was transferred to the ES Computer and Elbrus. Despite its versatility, Unix lost the market personal computers Windows family Microsoft company. The Unix operating system maintains its position in the field of mission-critical systems with a high degree of scalability and fault tolerance.