Type protozoa. See pages where the term simple system is mentioned Types of operating systems
In a country like the USSR, during the dictatorship, prices and costs seemed to be in no way consistent with each other. The government simply told the people where to work, for how long and how hard. In such a system it is simply impossible to find out what certain goods cost. And prices were set politically, not under pressure.
In order to strengthen the relationship between the ASPR and the OASU, it is necessary to consider the sectoral subsystems of the ASPR and the functional subsystems of the OASU as organically connected parts of a single system with a corresponding division of tasks solved within the framework of the State Planning Committee of the USSR, the State Planning Committees of the Union republics and ministries. The simultaneous, or at least coordinated, development of the OACS and the corresponding ASPR subsystems will make it possible to work out a large set of interrelated issues of both a methodological and informational, technical and organizational-legal nature necessary for the practical solution of problems and the joint functioning of these systems. Without such an approach to the creation of OASU and ASPR, neither one nor the other system will simply be able to work.
The system of addition of votes, unlike the system of simple majority, allows the minority to elect a certain number of directors. The minimum number of shares required to elect a specified number of directors is determined as follows:
Local databases are effective when working with one or several users, when it is possible to coordinate their activities administratively. Such systems are simple and reliable due to their locality and organizational independence.
Ezersky F.V. The theory of accounting according to all existing systems is simple, double Italian, English and other old and Russian self-testing triple. - St. Petersburg, 1889.
Depending on which system (simple, complex, large) the control is carried out, a distinction is made between automatic control systems (ACS) and automated information systems.
We no longer do any food-related exercises. I already told you that this system is simple. The exercise entitled "Who is most likely to..." is a great way to end the product section and leads directly into the next section.
The widespread idea that savings and investments, as defined in the strict sense of these words, can differ in amount is, I think, due to an "optical illusion" arising from the fact that the relationship between the individual depositor and the bank, where his contribution is placed are apparently one-sided in nature, when in fact such relationships are two-way. It is assumed that the depositor and his bank could somehow agree among themselves to carry out a transaction as a result of which the savings in the banking system would simply disappear (in other words, they would be completely lost from an investment point of view), or, conversely, that the banking the system is able to create investment opportunities that no savings can match. But no one can save without acquiring assets in some form, be it cash, debt obligations or capital goods; no one can also acquire property that he did not previously own, unless property of equal value turns out to be newly produced, or if someone else does not part with property of the same value that he had before. In the first case, savings correspond to new investments; in the second case, someone else must reduce their savings by an equal amount. Indeed, in the latter case, the corresponding decrease in wealth must be caused by such amounts of consumption that exceed income, and not by a write-off on the capital account, reflecting a change in the value of capital assets, because in this case he does not face any loss in the value of that property. which he previously had. The amount he receives exactly corresponds to the current value of his property, and yet the owner of the property fails to fully retain this amount in the form of any wealth, in other words, it follows that his current consumption has exceeded the amount of current income. If the banks are parting with any property, then someone must part with some of their cash. It follows that the total saving of the individual in question, and of all others taken together, must necessarily be equal to the current new investment.
You may be thinking that this is not your problem and that following the system is a simple matter. It's not like that at all.
What to expect from such a test Not much, really. If each test shows a high profit (for example, more than 10,000), consider that a winning system has been found. Of course, provided that all aspects of testing were presented correctly and the simulation was realistic. However, if every test showed a large loss (for example, more than 10,000 in a year), it is obvious that the system is simply useless. (There are a few subtle exceptions to this rule, which will be discussed in subsequent chapters.) In all likelihood, this system should be excluded from consideration at this stage. If, as is often the case, the results are mixed (that is, there are some large wins and large losses, along with smaller wins and losses), you can move on to the optimization stage. Proceed to the next stage of system development only if the majority of tests do not show major losses.
If all the testing steps described in this chapter have been followed, the likelihood that the system is simply bad is quite small. However, if the system was tested carelessly, then this is possible. If you find this exact reason, then test your trading system properly.
Taken together, these systems simply do not lend themselves to close integration.
Let's remember the fine systems in very recent times - bruises. For those who did not see the wonderful time of bruises, we note that this exact folk word reflected the essence of the labor quality management system, according to which, when a discrepancy, defect, or error was detected, blue triangles were drawn on a special screen or in the corresponding journal. The more bruises, the lower the premium. The system is as simple as a toilet mistake, a defect - a blow, another mistake - another blow and bruises for memory.
The new system is easy to use and uses the same methods as previously used when processing received reports. The transition to data processing using an electronic computer was gradual, and after its completion the company used the following programs when processing data
Error detection measures can be considered both for the case of verification during the development process and during software operation. Considering that during the development process, error detection is mainly implemented by a system of simple organizational measures, we will focus on the techniques and methods of detection at the level of software modules during operation.
In other words, the Los Angeles school system has failed to teach even basic knowledge to a quarter of a million children. And instead of keeping that quarter of a million in schools the same way a filter holds sediment, the system simply lowered the bar and pushed kids out into the real world. In my opinion, this is not a failure of the children, but of the system itself.
Economic analysis, and above all the analysis of labor indicators, is called upon to play a significant role in its solution, since in the system of simple elements of production - means of labor, objects of labor and living labor - the latter plays a decisive role. Only living labor can set in motion the past, embodied in the means and objects of labor.
The question arises: isn’t it easier to estimate the value of the products and services of each division? After all, since the cost is proportional to labor costs, the distribution by labor is a distribution proportional to the value created. This is true, but direct use of this correct position is possible only in a system of simple individual commodity production. The fact is that divisions, and especially individual employees of an enterprise or association, do not create value. What value is created by the accounting department of an enterprise or the technical standardization bureau in the workshop? Here we are talking, of course, not about the cost of the services of the accounting department or the technical standardization bureau, i.e., not about the costs of maintaining accountants and technical standardization, but about the cost of the product. But production units - workshops and areas of main production - do not create value, since not any items and services have value, but only goods. Items manufactured by a workshop - blanks, parts, assembly units and even finished products - are not goods. The workshop does not sell manufactured
Just a few years ago, the information processing situation at Marks Spencer was nothing special. As in most other retail chains, supply specialists ordered goods and distributed them to stores based on their own ideas about what customers might need. All the information system in place at that time could help them with was a simple retrospective analysis of data. It was impossible to predict sales volumes accurately enough to avoid pent-up demand or markdowns and write-offs of excess. An error in either direction had a negative impact on profitability.
The above system is easy to use and quite effective, especially if you remember the thousands of standards that Russian accountants have had to use for many years. It is easy to make calculations showing to what extent the use of accelerated depreciation affects current financial results. Let us again emphasize that its meaning is to provide the enterprise with a free tax credit in the first years of operation of new equipment. Since in the future this loan will have to be repaid, paying a relatively larger amount of income tax than with a uniform
In the USA, Great Britain and other countries during the development of the photographic studio of Mats Näslund and Håkan Loob USA (Table 5.2)1.
There is a whole class of day traders who specialize in trading NASDAQ stocks. But such day trading firms do not trade on the Internet, like you and me. Many of them occupy entire rooms where day traders sit, waiting for an impulse. They are equipped with high-power and high-tech systems that notify day traders of profitable opportunities long before you and I know about them. These day traders are attracted to NASDAQ stocks because they are highly volatile. Remember, if you have fast execution, volatility will make you profitable because you will get in and out of positions quickly and efficiently. But if you have slow execution, volatility will destroy your profits. The amount of profit that day traders can earn in a single day using powerful trading systems is simply staggering.
What is the potential source of tension between these two aspirations? The high achiever wants it to be measurable, while the high achiever wants clear direction and instructions. Under favorable conditions, goals and directions are bound to reinforce each other. An example would be a sales employee who finds the reporting system quite flexible and useful because it provides information that helps increase sales. Another example is a clear, simple reward system that makes it possible to clearly define the path to receiving rewards. Vroom's expectancy theory recognizes the need for transparent, clear paths to achieving success (Vroom and De i, 1970). Tension and conflict arise when rules and regulations do not provide benefits, but only make work more difficult. A good example of this would be a police officer with a high need for structure in his work, as his crime-solving work is only slowed down and hampered by excessive bureaucratic requirements and a whole heap of paperwork. His need for structure means not only scrupulous adherence to all formal procedures, but also the belief that work efficiency would be higher if he were not bound by the need to complete all the formalities. In extreme cases, it appears that the system is simply paralyzing its workers.
Let's return to our story about Alexander the Great. It represents the lion hemisphere. We are learning to use this part of our thinking in the current educational system. Neither in college nor in graduate school are we taught to use other parts of our thinking. The most important subjects in life are simply taught in our educational system today. You are reading this for the same reason why Alexan, the Great had to head to India. If you want to be truly successful in trading, you must become more like Diogenes and learn to relax and contemplate the river. And this is work that i must do on their own. No one in the whole world can do this for you. This is a process of subtracting everything extraneous. We don't need to learn more and more about what's wrong. We need to make more use of what we already know, but sometimes don't know that we know.
See pages where the term is mentioned The system is simple
: Automated information technologies in economics (2003) -- [While studying encodings, I realized that I did not understand number systems well enough. Nevertheless, I often used 2-, 8-, 10-, 16-th systems, converted one to another, but everything was done “automatically”. Having read many publications, I was surprised by the lack of a single, simple-language article on such basic material. That is why I decided to write my own, in which I tried to present the basics of number systems in an accessible and orderly manner.
Introduction
Notation is a way of recording (representing) numbers.What does this mean? For example, you see several trees in front of you. Your task is to count them. To do this, you can bend your fingers, make notches on a stone (one tree - one finger/notch), or match 10 trees with an object, for example, a stone, and a single specimen with a stick, and place them on the ground as you count. In the first case, the number is represented as a string of bent fingers or notches, in the second - a composition of stones and sticks, where stones are on the left and sticks on the right
Number systems are divided into positional and non-positional, and positional, in turn, into homogeneous and mixed.
Non-positional- the most ancient, in it each digit of a number has a value that does not depend on its position (digit). That is, if you have 5 lines, then the number is also 5, since each line, regardless of its place in the line, corresponds to only 1 item.
Positional system- the meaning of each digit depends on its position (digit) in the number. For example, the 10th number system that is familiar to us is positional. Let's consider the number 453. The number 4 indicates the number of hundreds and corresponds to the number 400, 5 - the number of tens and is similar to the value 50, and 3 - units and the value 3. As you can see, the larger the digit, the higher the value. The final number can be represented as the sum 400+50+3=453.
Homogeneous system- for all digits (positions) of a number the set of valid characters (digits) is the same. As an example, let's take the previously mentioned 10th system. When writing a number in a homogeneous 10th system, you can use only one digit from 0 to 9 in each digit, thus the number 450 is allowed (1st digit - 0, 2nd - 5, 3rd - 4), but 4F5 is not, because the character F is not included in the set of numbers 0 to 9.
Mixed system- in each digit (position) of a number, the set of valid characters (digits) may differ from the sets of other digits. A striking example is the time measurement system. In the category of seconds and minutes there are 60 different symbols possible (from “00” to “59”), in the category of hours – 24 different symbols (from “00” to “23”), in the category of day – 365, etc.
Non-positional systems
As soon as people learned to count, the need to write down numbers arose. In the beginning, everything was simple - a notch or dash on some surface corresponded to one object, for example, one fruit. This is how the first number system appeared - unit.Unit number system
A number in this number system is a string of dashes (sticks), the number of which is equal to the value of the given number. Thus, a harvest of 100 dates will be equal to a number consisting of 100 dashes.But this system has obvious inconveniences - the larger the number, the longer the string of sticks. In addition, you can easily make a mistake when writing a number by accidentally adding an extra stick or, conversely, not writing it down.
For convenience, people began to group sticks into 3, 5, and 10 pieces. At the same time, each group corresponded to a specific sign or object. Initially, fingers were used for counting, so the first signs appeared for groups of 5 and 10 pieces (units). All this made it possible to create more convenient systems for recording numbers.
Ancient Egyptian decimal system
In Ancient Egypt, special symbols (numbers) were used to represent the numbers 1, 10, 10 2, 10 3, 10 4, 10 5, 10 6, 10 7. Here are some of them:Why is it called decimal? As stated above, people began to group symbols. In Egypt, they chose a group of 10, leaving the number “1” unchanged. In this case, the number 10 is called the base decimal number system, and each symbol is a representation of the number 10 to some degree.
Numbers in the ancient Egyptian number system were written as a combination of these
characters, each of which was repeated no more than nine times. The final value was equal to the sum of the elements of the number. It is worth noting that this method of obtaining a value is characteristic of every non-positional number system. An example would be the number 345:
Babylonian sexagesimal system
Unlike the Egyptian system, the Babylonian system used only 2 symbols: a “straight” wedge to indicate units and a “recumbent” wedge to indicate tens. To determine the value of a number, you need to divide the image of the number into digits from right to left. A new discharge begins with the appearance of a straight wedge after a recumbent one. Let's take the number 32 as an example:
The number 60 and all its powers are also denoted by a straight wedge, like “1”. Therefore, the Babylonian number system was called sexagesimal.
The Babylonians wrote all numbers from 1 to 59 in a decimal non-positional system, and large values in a positional system with a base of 60. Number 92:
The recording of the number was ambiguous, since there was no digit indicating zero. The representation of the number 92 could mean not only 92=60+32, but also, for example, 3632=3600+32. To determine the absolute value of a number, a special symbol was introduced to indicate the missing sexagesimal digit, which corresponds to the appearance of the number 0 in the decimal number notation:
Now the number 3632 should be written as:
The Babylonian sexagesimal system is the first number system based in part on the positional principle. This number system is still used today, for example, when determining time - an hour consists of 60 minutes, and a minute consists of 60 seconds.
Roman system
The Roman system is not very different from the Egyptian one. It uses capital Latin letters I, V, X, L, C, D and M to represent the numbers 1, 5, 10, 50, 100, 500 and 1000, respectively. A number in the Roman numeral system is a set of consecutive digits.Methods for determining the value of a number:
- The value of a number is equal to the sum of the values of its digits. For example, the number 32 in the Roman numeral system is XXXII=(X+X+X)+(I+I)=30+2=32
- If there is a smaller one to the left of the larger digit, then the value is equal to the difference between the larger and smaller digits. At the same time, the left digit can be less than the right one by a maximum of one order of magnitude: for example, only X(10) can appear before L(50) and C(100) among the “lowest” ones, and only before D(500) and M(1000) C(100), before V(5) - only I(1); the number 444 in the number system under consideration will be written as CDXLIV = (D-C)+(L-X)+(V-I) = 400+40+4=444.
- The value is equal to the sum of the values of groups and numbers that do not fit into points 1 and 2.
1) Slavic
2) Greek (Ionian)
Positional number systems
As mentioned above, the first prerequisites for the emergence of a positional system arose in ancient Babylon. In India, the system took the form of positional decimal numbering using zero, and from the Indians this number system was borrowed by the Arabs, from whom the Europeans adopted it. For some reason, in Europe the name “Arab” was assigned to this system.Decimal number system
This is one of the most common number systems. This is what we use when we name the price of a product and say the bus number. Each digit (position) can only use one digit from the range from 0 to 9. The base of the system is the number 10.For example, let’s take the number 503. If this number were written in a non-positional system, then its value would be 5+0+3 = 8. But we have a positional system and that means each digit of the number must be multiplied by the base of the system, in this case the number “ 10”, raised to a power equal to the digit number. It turns out that the value is 5*10 2 + 0*10 1 + 3*10 0 = 500+0+3 = 503. To avoid confusion when working with several number systems simultaneously, the base is indicated as a subscript. Thus, 503 = 503 10.
In addition to the decimal system, the 2-, 8-, and 16th systems deserve special attention.
Binary number system
This system is mainly used in computing. Why didn't they use the usual 10th? The first computer was created by Blaise Pascal, who used the decimal system, which turned out to be inconvenient in modern electronic machines, since it required the production of devices capable of operating in 10 states, which increased their price and the final size of the machine. Elements operating in the 2nd system do not have these shortcomings. However, the system in question was created long before the invention of computers and has its “roots” in the Incan civilization, where quipus were used - complex rope weaves and knots.The binary positional number system has a base of 2 and uses 2 symbols (digits) to write numbers: 0 and 1. Only one digit is allowed in each digit - either 0 or 1.
An example is the number 101. It is similar to the number 5 in the decimal number system. In order to convert from 2 to 10, you need to multiply each digit of a binary number by the base “2” raised to a power equal to the place value. Thus, the number 101 2 = 1*2 2 + 0*2 1 + 1*2 0 = 4+0+1 = 5 10.
Well, for machines the 2nd number system is more convenient, but we often see and use numbers in the 10th system on the computer. How then does the machine determine what number the user is entering? How does it translate a number from one system to another, since it only has 2 symbols - 0 and 1?
In order for a computer to work with binary numbers (codes), they must be stored somewhere. To store each individual digit, a trigger, which is an electronic circuit, is used. It can be in 2 states, one of which corresponds to zero, the other to one. To remember a single number, a register is used - a group of triggers, the number of which corresponds to the number of digits in a binary number. And the set of registers is RAM. The number contained in the register is a machine word. Arithmetic and logical operations with words are performed by an arithmetic logic unit (ALU). To simplify access to registers, they are numbered. The number is called the register address. For example, if you need to add 2 numbers, it is enough to indicate the numbers of the cells (registers) in which they are located, and not the numbers themselves. Addresses are written in octal and hexadecimal systems (they will be discussed below), since the transition from them to the binary system and back is quite simple. To transfer from the 2nd to the 8th, the number must be divided into groups of 3 digits from right to left, and to move to the 16th - 4. If there are not enough digits in the leftmost group of digits, then they are filled from the left with zeros, which are called leading. Let's take the number 101100 2 as an example. In octal it is 101 100 = 54 8, and in hexadecimal it is 0010 1100 = 2C 16. Great, but why do we see decimal numbers and letters on the screen? When you press a key, a certain sequence of electrical impulses is transmitted to the computer, and each symbol has its own sequence of electrical impulses (zeros and ones). The keyboard and screen driver program accesses the character code table (for example, Unicode, which allows you to encode 65536 characters), determines which character the resulting code corresponds to, and displays it on the screen. Thus, texts and numbers are stored in the computer's memory in binary code, and are converted programmatically into images on the screen.
Octal number system
The 8th number system, like the binary one, is often used in digital technology. It has a base of 8 and uses the digits 0 to 7 to write numbers.An example of an octal number: 254. To convert to the 10th system, each digit of the original number must be multiplied by 8 n, where n is the digit number. It turns out that 254 8 = 2*8 2 + 5*8 1 + 4*8 0 = 128+40+4 = 172 10.
Hexadecimal number system
The hexadecimal system is widely used in modern computers, for example, it is used to indicate color: #FFFFFF - white. The system in question has a base of 16 and uses the following numbers to write: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B. C, D, E, F, where the letters are 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 respectively.Let's take the number 4F5 16 as an example. To convert to the octal system, we first convert the hexadecimal number into binary, and then, dividing it into groups of 3 digits, into octal. To convert a number to 2, you need to represent each digit as a 4-bit binary number. 4F5 16 = (100 1111 101) 2 . But in groups 1 and 3 there is not enough digit, so let’s fill each with leading zeros: 0100 1111 0101. Now you need to divide the resulting number into groups of 3 digits from right to left: 0100 1111 0101 = 010 011 110 101. Let’s convert each binary group to the octal system, multiplying each digit by 2 n, where n is the digit number: (0*2 2 +1*2 1 +0*2 0) (0*2 2 +1*2 1 +1*2 0) (1*2 2 +1*2 1 +0*2 0) (1*2 2 +0*2 1 +1*2 0) = 2365 8 .
In addition to the considered positional number systems, there are others, for example:
1) Trinity
2) Quaternary
3) Duodecimal
Positional systems are divided into homogeneous and mixed.
Homogeneous positional number systems
The definition given at the beginning of the article describes homogeneous systems quite fully, so clarification is unnecessary.Mixed number systems
To the already given definition we can add the theorem: “if P=Q n (P,Q,n are positive integers, while P and Q are bases), then the recording of any number in the mixed (P-Q) number system identically coincides with writing the same number in the number system with the base Q.”Based on the theorem, we can formulate rules for transferring from the P-th to the Q-th systems and vice versa:
- To convert from the Q-th to the P-th, you need to divide the number in the Q-th system into groups of n digits, starting with the right digit, and replace each group with one digit in the P-th system.
- To convert from P-th to Q-th, it is necessary to convert each digit of a number in the P-th system to Q-th and fill the missing digits with leading zeros, with the exception of the left one, so that each number in the system with base Q consists of n digits .
Mixed number systems are also, for example:
1) Factorial
2) Fibonacci
Conversion from one number system to another
Sometimes you need to convert a number from one number system to another, so let's look at ways to convert between different systems.Conversion to decimal number system
There is a number a 1 a 2 a 3 in the number system with base b. To convert to the 10th system, it is necessary to multiply each digit of the number by b n, where n is the number of the digit. Thus, (a 1 a 2 a 3) b = (a 1 *b 2 + a 2 *b 1 + a 3 *b 0) 10.Example: 101 2 = 1*2 2 + 0*2 1 + 1*2 0 = 4+0+1 = 5 10
Conversion from decimal number system to others
Whole part:- We successively divide the integer part of the decimal number by the base of the system into which we are converting until the decimal number equals zero.
- The remainders obtained during division are the digits of the desired number. The number in the new system is written starting from the last remainder.
- We multiply the fractional part of the decimal number by the base of the system to which we want to convert. Separate the whole part. We continue to multiply the fractional part by the base of the new system until it equals 0.
- Numbers in the new system are made up of whole parts of multiplication results in the order corresponding to their production.
15\8 = 1, remainder 7
1\8 = 0, remainder 1
Having written all the remainders from bottom to top, we get the final number 17. Therefore, 15 10 = 17 8.
Converting from binary to octal and hexadecimal
To convert to octal, we divide the binary number into groups of 3 digits from right to left, and fill the missing outermost digits with leading zeros. Next, we transform each group by multiplying the digits sequentially by 2n, where n is the number of the digit.As an example, let's take the number 1001 2: 1001 2 = 001 001 = (0*2 2 + 0*2 1 + 1*2 0) (0*2 2 + 0*2 1 + 1*2 0) = (0+ 0+1) (0+0+1) = 11 8
To convert to hexadecimal, we divide the binary number into groups of 4 digits from right to left, then similar to the conversion from 2nd to 8th.
Convert from octal and hexadecimal to binary
Conversion from octal to binary - we convert each digit of an octal number into a binary 3-digit number by dividing by 2 (for more information about division, see the paragraph “Converting from the decimal number system to others” above), fill the missing outermost digits with leading zeros.For example, consider the number 45 8: 45 = (100) (101) = 100101 2
Translation from the 16th to the 2nd - we convert each digit of a hexadecimal number into a binary 4-digit number by dividing by 2, filling the missing outer digits with leading zeros.
Converting the fractional part of any number system to decimal
The conversion is carried out in the same way as for integer parts, except that the digits of the number are multiplied by the base to the power “-n”, where n starts from 1.
Example: 101,011 2 = (1*2 2 + 0*2 1 + 1*2 0), (0*2 -1 + 1*2 -2 + 1*2 -3) = (5), (0 + 0 .25 + 0.125) = 5.375 10
Converting the fractional part of binary to 8th and 16th
The translation of the fractional part is carried out in the same way as for whole parts of a number, with the only exception that the division into groups of 3 and 4 digits goes to the right of the decimal point, the missing digits are supplemented with zeros to the right.Example: 1001.01 2 = 001 001, 010 = (0*2 2 + 0*2 1 + 1*2 0) (0*2 2 + 0*2 1 + 1*2 0), (0*2 2 + 1*2 1 + 0*2 0) = (0+0+1) (0+0+1), (0+2+0) = 11.2 8
Converting the fractional part of the decimal system to any other
To convert the fractional part of a number to other number systems, you need to turn the whole part into zero and begin multiplying the resulting number by the base of the system to which you want to convert. If, as a result of multiplication, whole parts appear again, they must be turned to zero again, after first remembering (writing down) the value of the resulting whole part. The operation ends when the fractional part is completely zero.For example, let's convert 10.625 10 to binary:
0,625*2 = 1,25
0,250*2 = 0,5
0,5*2 = 1,0
Writing down all the remainders from top to bottom, we get 10.625 10 = (1010), (101) = 1010.101 2
The system ensures self-preservation through the interaction of parts, therefore the relationships between them and their mutual influence are much more important than their number or size. These relationships, and therefore the system itself, can be simple or complex.
The complexity of anything can manifest itself in two different ways. When we call something complex, we usually think of many different parts. This is the complexity caused by the detail, the number of elements considered. When we have a jigsaw puzzle made up of thousands of pieces, we are dealing with the complexity of detail. We usually manage to find a way to simplify, group and organize this kind of complex structure in which there is only one place for each part. Computers are good at this task, especially if it allows for a step-by-step solution.
Another type of complexity is dynamic. It arises in cases where elements can enter into a wide variety of relationships with each other. Since each of them is capable of being in many different states, even with a small number of elements they can be connected in countless ways. You cannot judge complexity based on the number of elements rather than the possible ways to connect them. It is not always true that the fewer elements included in a system, the easier it is to understand and control. It all depends on the degree of dynamic complexity.
Imagine a group of colleagues working on a business project. The mood of each team member is very changeable. They may be in different relationships with each other. Thus, a system, even consisting of a few elements, can have great dynamic complexity. On closer examination, it can distinguish problems that seem very simple at first glance.
New connections between the parts that make up the system increase complexity, and the addition of one more element can lead to the creation of many additional connections. At the same time, their number does not increase by one. Number possible connections may grow exponentially- in other words, adding each subsequent element increases the number of connections to a greater extent than adding the previous one. For example, imagine that we start with just two elements, A and B. Here |there are only two possible connections and two directions of influence: A to B and B to A. Let's add one more element. There are now three elements in the system: A, B and C. The number of possible connections, however, has increased to 6 and even to 12 if we consider it possible that two elements enter into an alliance and jointly influence a third (say, A and B influence WITH). As you can see, you don't need many elements to create a dynamically complex system, even if each can only be in one state. We know from our own experience: managing two people is more than twice as difficult as managing one person, since there are additional opportunities for misunderstandings, and with the advent of a second child, parents have more than twice the hassle and joy.
The simplest systems consist of a small number of elements between which simple connections are possible. A good example is the thermostat. It has low detail complexity and low dynamic complexity.
A very complex system may consist of many elements or subsystems, all of which are capable of being in different states that will change in response to what happens to the other parts. Constructing a diagram of this kind of complex system is like finding a path in a labyrinth that completely changes depending on the direction we choose. Strategic games, such as chess, have dynamic complexity because each move changes the relationship between the pieces and, accordingly, the situation on the board. (The dynamic complexity of chess could be even greater if the pieces could change after each move.)
The first lesson of systems thinking is that we must be aware of what kind of complexity we are dealing with in a given system - detailed or dynamic (with mosaics or chess).
The operation of the system is determined by the relationships between elements, so any, even the smallest element can change the behavior of the whole. For example, the hypothalamus, a small, pea-sized gland located in the human brain, regulates body temperature, breathing rate, fluid balance and blood pressure. Likewise, heart rate affects the entire body. When it speeds up, you feel anxious or excited, and when it slows down, you feel calm.
All parts of the system are interdependent and interact with each other. How they do this determines their impact on the system.
This leads to an interesting rule: the more connections you have, the greater the possible influence. By expanding your connections, you multiply it. Research shows that successful managers spend four times as much time maintaining and expanding relationships as their less successful colleagues. (2)
Different elements can jointly influence the whole. Various groups of people unite and form alliances in order to influence the activities of government structures, organizations, and teams.
For combinations with phase verbs, see § .
Note 1. The same compatibility (but with greater restrictions for names of the full form and especially for short forms) is presented in participles and gerunds: come, coming last/last, spoken, having spoken first/first; standing naked(Fed.; / standing naked); having become cheerful/cheerful, staying lonely/lonely.
Note 2. In predicate combinations lies sick (sick), and also in combination with adj. one, one, alone named after not replaced by TV: Brother lies sick; She lives one.
Note 3. In sentences with a predicate - a verb of being, identifying, becoming, the adjective that determines the subject name, according to the conditions of actual division, is very often placed at the end of the sentence (see § ): I held on cold autumn - Autumn held on cold; They're standing strong frosts - frosts are worth strong, similar: Day such it was a great day (happened) the only one; Winter has arrived long; Day walked Sunday; Painting looms sad; Method applies advanced; Storm raged ferocious; Solution accepted correct; On shelf With icons blinked lamp: evening had to Saturday(Baby.); Tie on white shirt lying black(Olesha). In such cases, the position of the predicate is occupied by the verb along with the definition placed at the end of the sentence. Name here it does not alternate with TV. п. However, it is characteristic that, once in the actualized position, individual qualitative adjectives ( hot, warm, hot, cold, chill, frosty and some etc.) show a tendency towards such alternation: It was a great day cold day - Day it was a great day cold/cold; Costs warm spring - Spring costs warm/warm.
2) The predicate is represented by a combination of a significant verb, meaning being, discovery, thought, attitude, perception, with a noun in the form of TV: He imagined myself hero; Companion pretended to be good-natured; Drought turned around fire; Girlfriend I was waiting his bride two of the year; A drug lay down first experienced bit by bit on palm scientist(gas.); He lived wonderful writer And extraordinary person And died hero(Paust.); Railway carriage felt floating headquarters(Baby).
3) The predicate is represented by a combination of a verb, meaning being in a state, identifying, naming, with a noun in the form of a name. or in the form of tv. п., alternating with the form of name п.; TV form stylistically neutral; form named after with such alternation it may have a tinge of obsolescence: Khutor called By settlements/ Vyselki; Generalissimo such He lies(Meyerhold; / generalissimo); A Vasya glorious guy increased(Lidin; / glorious boy).
4) The predicate is represented by a combination of a verb with a meaning. being, discovery, being in a state or transition to a state, expression of will, thought - with a noun in the form tv. п., replaced by forms of other indirect cases or allied groups: IN ministry He consists of consultant/V quality consultant/How consultant/V consultants, works (decided, wants work) builder/How builder/V quality builder, is listed leader/ V frontline workers/V quality leader/among advanced workers, offers myself intermediary/V intermediaries/V quality intermediary/How intermediary, hit there secretary/V secretaries/V quality secretary/ How secretary, serves taxi driver/V taxi drivers, lives, serves watchman/V watchmen, conceived myself artist/How artist (conceived myself How honey old grumpy. Kassil), asked milkmaid/V milkmaids, grandfather agreed go watchman/V watchman, read (dare say goodbye) myself groom/V grooms, believes myself genius/behind genius, reputed an expert/ behind connoisseur, stay Here mistress/behind the hostess/ V quality housewives, found myself guard/ V guards/behind guard/V quality guard, these words remain reminder/ How reminder/V quality reminders, saber stored relic/How relic/V quality relics, city arose silhouette/How silhouette/V form silhouette, book released brochure/ How brochure/V form brochures, tree emerged unclear spot/How unclear spot; Old Arzamas remained V memory How city apples And churches(Paust.; / remained V memory city apples And churches). With an adjective: this Job counts severe/from heavy (Maybe, from the most heavy was considered this Job. Lidin).
5) The predicate is represented by a combination of a verb, meaning the acquisition or change of state, expression of will, being, with a noun in the indirect case with a preposition: gone from foremen, dropped out from participants, gave in V helpers, breaks through V bosses, came out V managers, is imposed, stuffing himself V advisors, erects myself V geniuses, gave out myself behind auditor, turned V layman, increased V head, writhes master, builds from myself, plays out (from myself) philanthropist, studies on engineer, on doctor, this employee is listed By office, By our department; Life, movement resolved IN dusk unsteady, V further hum(Tyutch.); Wolves crushed V watchmen(Soloukh.).
6) The predicate is represented by a combination of a verb with a meaning. being, being in a state, moving, detecting and indirect case of a name with a preposition; such a predicate contains a characteristic of the episodic state of the subject: is sitting With sour mine, lay down sleep V clothes, walks With gloomy physiognomy, awoke V cold sweat; Yes after all Not could or I know, What He will come With bitten finger(Adv.).
7) The predicate is represented by a verbal phrase with a subjective infinitive (see § ): going (thinks, wants, Maybe...) go, used to it (learned, tired) work, Not slowed down (Not missed, Not bothered) come. If the adjacent infinitive, in turn, is connected with the word depending on it by one of those connections that are described above in paragraphs 1-5, then the entire corresponding combination is included in the predicate: One paintings I wished be forever viewer (Pushk.); decided stay one, Not wants impose V buddies, decided work builder, wants show myself educated, Maybe imagine myself hero, refuses issue myself behind another, know how be kind, made up my mind try begin study paint, decided agree speak opponent.
About combinations with became (became work, became come first, will become impose V advisors) see § .
2) The predicate is represented by a lexically limited combination of two conjugated forms of verbs, one of which means movement or being in a state, position in space: sit, stand, go, run, walk, lie(or motivated by them); another verb is lexically free: is sitting sews, costs waiting, calm down come, lies groans, grumbles walks, I'll come in I'll check on you, sleep lie down, let's sit let's rest, sitting I'm watching TV, He to me Here interferes costs, coming staggers; Let's go let's go behind firewood(Shuksh.); Secretaries sat - eyes raise Not dare(Abr.).
Verbs in this combination can also name actions following one another: Now or I'm running I'll write letter(Adv.); go apologize.
With the preposition of a lexically limited verb, communication using conjunctions is normal here And, Yes: lies And thinks, is sitting And crying, I'm coming And I'm happy, costs Yes laughs; [Osip:] Profintil dear money, darling, Now is sitting And tail turned up, Not gets excited(Gogol); Sit down-ka one from you And write, What I speak will(Lesk.). This also includes combinations such as lay down And lies, sat down And is sitting, sit down And sit down, stand up And stop.
Note: The syntactic integrity of the combinations described in paragraph 2 is evidenced by the fact that the controlled name in them can be directly adjacent not to the control verb, but to the verb of movement or state: I'm watching sitting TV; About to me is sitting crying; Above you are worth laughing; Auditor Act is sitting writes; I them puzzles I'm coming I explain; I V crack I'm approaching I look every minute(Adv.); A asked would his, O how He This stood And thought, That maybe would Nothing Not remembered(Adv.); foot sitting I'm shaking(Bunin); A He look which superstitions is sitting breeds(Bunin); ABOUT strength are worth interpret(Shuksh.); A Egor on hillock stood And I was waiting Lyuba(Shuksh.).
3) The predicate is represented by a non-union combination of two verbs, meaning actions or states that accompany each other or are closely related to one another: Father you feeds-gives water, puts on shoes-dresses; Orderly And horses them harnesses-unharnesses(Lyg.).
3) In the form of the past vv. a variant of the predicate are combinations of past forms. or bud. vr. verb owl kind with adverb How: How screamed!; How will scream! This predicate expresses a sudden, intense and intense short-term action (see § Shvandya:] Borodishcha - in! Volosya - Same. How will squeal! (Train.).
4) A predicate, which is formed by combining an infinitive with an initial verb or with a verb become (began cry, started laugh, became argue), as an option has the actual infinitive or the combination " Let's+ infinitive", expressing the rapid and energetic beginning of an action in the past: She (Let's) laugh. He (Let's) argue. In a constitution, the predicate-infinitive can also denote a present or future action: Another would regretted it, asked, A this only swear And about to myself think(L. Thick.); He you beat, A You stop on his(Lesk.). Occasionally, replacing the conjugated form of a verb with an infinitive is possible and will prompt in the form. incl.: AND V anger shouted Bringilda: "All keep silent ! What want to You, chatty creations?" (Ann.).
About predicates with particles was, it happened (went was, walked it happened) see § .
[Sofia:] Reproaches, complaints, tears my Not dare expect, Not stand You their; But to V home Here dawn you Not found, So that never O you I more Not I heard(Mushroom.); [Said], What This her milk mushrooms, What she found their And What let We are looking for another layer(Ax.); Well, did vulgarity - Well, And repent! Ask forgiveness! Sorry, they say, darling-daddy, What you upset! (S.-Sch.); A as long as let him hatchet at me lie down! (S.-Sch.); - No, - I say, - money case Not important, But I Not Wish be by you fooled. Let We With by her see you, And I to her most, Maybe be, more more I'll give(Lesk.); I Not Want neither bitterness, neither revenge, Let I'll die With last white blizzard(Ahm.); Yes will gain my mouth Initial muteness, How crystalline note, What from birth clean! (Mandelsht.); Let mine destiny Vagrancy will And rowdiness. Let hungry I I'm standing at kitchens, Inhaling smell feasts someone else's, Let will wear out my cloth, AND boots O stones will break, AND songs I'll forget how to do it I compose... What from Togo? (Bagr.); What and, rumble, comma And dot, hit, timpani, run amok, alarm bell! (Bold.); Teki, Neva, back, lift up With streets slimy ends on end, throw it away barges on streets, build, water, barricades! (School); Dreaming-That... Dream you want more often(Shuksh.); Yes Not will run out thunder bubbling AND solar song bumblebee! (Firsov); Passed war, passed suffering, But pain calls out To people: Let's, People, never About this Not let's forget(Tward.). For examples, see also § .
For the use of the subject in such sentences, see § .
In colloquial and casual, expressive speech, with the subject (or when addressing) - a name in the plural form. it is possible to use a predicate - a verb in the singular form: - Well, So stop, wait a minute, Guys, - continued Dogadun, - solve it task... A You All, Guys, Same Not dozing off! (Bunin); Pink lips, twisted chibouk. Blue hussars - torture destiny(Aseev); Male rotates head And right, And left, publishing laryngeal sounds. This, apparently, means: blur All V sides(gas.).
For sentences with verbs begin, to finish, take, undertake, go, go, fly and some etc. with imperative intonation (IK-2 or IK-3), the meaning of the incentive can take on the form of the past: Cum conversations!; Have taken!; Go! (see § ).
With imperative intonation, the meaning of motivation can take on the form of a future. (with a verb in form 2 or 3 .): Will you go with me!; Will study!; Will you take it? book And Now or take it her V library!. (see § .
